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Leading information technology companies in India are meanwhile increasing their presence in North America, in step with the improving business climate in the region. Top-tier information technology companies which are increasing their delivery capabilities in North America, includeHCL Technologies which concluded acquisition and expansion of its Parsippany, New Jersey data centre. The North America region currently accounts for 60 per cent of India’s Information Tech export basket. Information technology company, Cognizant, has similarly announced the expansion of its US delivery centres in Toronto and Phoenix (Arizona). India’s top-ranking status in the field of basic research came in for mention at the India Eco Summit held recently, where the panelists discussed whether, and how, India could become an innovation hub in the near future, given India’s strengths in science and technology and research and development. The country made a significant stride in science and technology with Indian researchers succeeding in sequencing the entire genome of a human being. The genome sequencing was undertaken by the Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology, part of the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR). In another development that would have a bearing on innovative science and technology prospects for Indian companies—on the sidelines of the climate change conference at Copenhagen, India’s proposal for a global network of innovation centres for climate-friendly technologies received wide consensus. Leading manufacturers of automobiles in India, posted record monthly sales for the month of November 2009, even as car makers and two-wheeler companies improved on their sales posted in earlier months. Two of the leading manufacturers of automobiles in India, Maruti Suzuki and Hyundai Motor India reported record monthly sales of 87,807 units and 55,265 units respectively for the month of November 2009. Major manufacturers of Automobile are seeing their India operations contribute significantly to the company’s global operations. For example, Hyundai’s India subsidiary contributes between 15 per cent and 20 per cent to the company’s global turnover. India’s infrastructure segment has received a boost with representatives from the Power Grid Corporation, the India Infrastructure Finance Co Ltd (IIFCL), the World Bank and the Government of India, signing loan agreements for projects of a total value of US$ 4.2 billion in the month of October 2009. In another fillip to the country’s infrastructure that is certain to speed up infrastructure projects through the route of public-private partnership, the Asian Development Bank (ADB) has decided to provide close to US$ 700 million in loans as part of the second India infrastructure project financing facility. According to a study by PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC) and Urban Land Institute, India heads the top real estate investment markets for the year 2010. The report, which is based on the views of over 270 international Real Estate professionals, revealed that India, particularly the Indian cities of Mumbai and Delhi were viewed as good destinations with residential properties seen as more attractive sectors. ICICI Bank, a leading private bank, has stated that it was focussing on the home loans segment on the back of a recovery in the real estate segment. HDFC, a top lender of home loans, has said that it expects loan disbursals in the housing sector to remain strong in the current fiscal (FY 2010). HDFC Vice-Chairman and Managing Director, Keki Mistry, said, “Loan disbursals (in the housing sector) remain very strong. We expect credit growth in excess of 20 per cent.”HDFC Bank, has for its own part, made news in the banking system. HDFC Bank has been named the strongest bank in the Asia-Pacific region, in a survey conducted by Asian Banker, which provides information for the financial services industry. Other Indian banks that featured in the ranking include Punjab National Bank (PNB) and Union Bank of India. The healthcare sector in India is projected to grow to US$ 77 billion mark by 2012, up 23 per cent from the current size, according to a recently released study. The growth in the healthcare sector in India would come on the back of growth in healthcare facilities in the public and private sector as well as growth in medical diagnostic and path labs, as well as growth in the medical insurance sector. The Indian life insurance industry is on a high growth trajectory, posting a double-digit growth figure of 35.7 per cent year-on-year in October 2009, on the back of high inflows in premiums of the first year.

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Corruption is the main hurdle before India

Dalip Singh Wasan, Advocate.

All who the potentials available in India are of the opinion that India can go ahead, but since most of the people who are having power in their hands are corrupt and that is the reason, the people of India could not space with countries which could develop and reach the highest stage during the last half a century. The people of India should have been happy because God had blessed them with all the basics which are the main things with which a country can go ahead. We know that we have mountains, rivers, minerals, fertile land, hard working people, rains, iron, coal, petroleum and all that which nature could provide to the man on this earth. That had been the reason this country of us had been known as a golden sparrow. But today we are counted in the line of developing countries and some people count us in the line of poor and backward countries. Some say that India is a crowd and some say the beggars are on the higher side. It is on record that some people had written that India is an open latrine because most of the houses in India were not having latrines and bath rooms in the houses and the people are obliged to go out for easing themselves and it is on record that most of the people had been waiting for a festival when they were able to have their bath.

When we were entering into the era of independence, Mahatma Gandhi was dreaming that India shall become Ram Rajaya. But Mahatma was not allowed to live and construct this country into Ram Rajaya. The people who took over from the imperialists were never interested converting India into Ram Rajaya and that had been the reason, they started working on the same lines where the imperialists had left this country. They adopted the same methods of working because they accepted most of the laws framed by the imperialists and they also accepted the main factor ‘divide and rule’ and that is the reason first of all we had to face partition of India in which lakhs of people were killed and crores were forced to migrate to unknown places. Then we started and it is on record that we both the countries India and Pakistan had been having direct and indirect wars and then we started with indirect war of terrorism in which we had been killing innocent people. In addition tot his terrorism there had been riots and in those riots we again started killing our own people and we killed only those who were killed. This had been our way of working since independence and that had been the reason, we could not attain what we could attain during these last six decades.

And when the people on seats of power are not interested in our development, they started developing their own position and they started with the development of their own and that too on the financial side. They left the system of taking bribes because those amounts were on the small side. The poor people could not afford much. Therefore, they started with having encroachments into the state exchequer. They started indulging in scams, scandals, muddles, sale of quotas, sale of licences and the like and within days they could turn rich. Since they had been spending big amounts on elections, they were bound to collect more and more so that they could have sufficient funds with them in the next elections. We have been told that all those who joined with these people with power could collect huge money. If we go deep, we shall find that not more than thirty per cent had been spent on each project and the remaining seventy per cent had been eaten away by those who had been planning projects, who had been giving those projects on contract and who had been supervising the execution of these projects through commissions and dalali. We have been told that the people who had been contracting with other countries had also been taking commissions and the amounts so collected had been transmitted through ‘ hawalas’. The things which have been quoted here are not foreign to the people of India, but they had been reading all such newsin their own news papers and it is on record that when the world level agencies had been naming corrupt countries, our country could get a position amongst the tops. This is very bad on our part, because we had started with making this country a Ram rajaya.

When the cats are away the mouse shall play had been the reason that all the small officers and officials also started taking bribe and they started turning rich within days and that is the reason people in service in some of the departments became rich and people in other departments remained poor. The state is noticing all this, but it is on record that even the police does not take care when the people in power are doing all this. They start working when the political party loses power and another party comes in power. Then the police starts functioning against the old band and that is the reason most of the people in the previous governments are seen visiting police stations, courts and some are sent to jails too. The police could not have the eyes with which they could notice all when the same is happening. They allow the criminals to function and then destroy all the evidence and when the people holding files are also with them, they could destroy and conceal all the evidence. That is the reason, most of the people who are corrupt are safe because files are not speaking against them.

Under these circumstances, the people of India would not be able to establish Ram rajaya here and they shall remain under this rule because the present rule has taken firm establishment in this country. The people have started tolerating all this and it is on record that they are electing the same sets of people time and again in spite of the fact that they know all about these people and they had been reading all about these people. They are not finding the alternative people and that is the reason the same sets of people are coming time and again and are taking their turns. Since there are two sets of people taking their turns, they have a mutual understanding and they are keeping silence and are giving ample time to the party in power to loot the public exchequer and the people and they keep silence only because that they too shall be having their turn and they too shall be doing what the present set of people are doing. So under these circumstances, we shall not be able to shunt out these sets of people nor we have got a second line of leaders to rule us. The people who are taking power in turns are not having any sense of democracy with them nor they are considering themselves as public servants. They are ruling us and the rulers have got no sympathy with the people. The people of India had been slaves for centuries and that is the reason they are not understanding the real meaning of independence and democracy. They are just voters and they are called and after having their votes, they are pushed back to suffer for another term of five years or more. This corruption shall be attracting more and more people and that is the reason some families are able to establish family rule here in India. More and more families are coming forward and therefore the people of India would never attain independence nor they would turn democrats. They have got only one right of vote and with this right they would never be able to write off corruption from India.

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Dr. M. R. KhanDepartment of Agricultural EntomologyBidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Kalyani, Nadia-741235, West Bengal, IndiaEmail: mrkhanbckv@rediffmail.comIntroductionPlant parasitic nematode, the hidden enemy of crops is one of the many groups of harmful organism which depend on plants for their survival. Nematode can cause damage to almost all kinds of crops, however, due to their subterranean habit, microscopic size (from 0.3 to 10 mm length), they are invisible to the naked eye. They penetrate and feed on the root of growing plants, stealing nutrients vital for plant growth and exposing the roots to attack by other soil pathogens. It has widely been recognized that plant parasitic nematodes constitute one of the most devastating pests groups and are responsible for insidious disease symptoms in different crops causing huge losses. Estimated annual yield losses in the world’s major crops due to plant parasitic nematodes is about 12.3% and it is about 14% in the developing countries (Sasser & Freckman, 1987). In India, recent estimate showed nematode is responsible for both quantitatively and qualitatively yield losses amounting about Rs.240 billion every year (Sehgal & Gaur 1999). Beside direct damage, plant parasitic nematodes serve as predisposing agents in development of disease complexes with fungi, bacteria and viruses. In many situations, plant varieties resistant to fungi, bacteria are rendered susceptible when parasitized by nematodes. There is no doubt that nematodes either alone or in combination with other pathogens constitute an important constraint to world food production. Intensive and extensive cultivation of crops particularly in irrigated crop production system has seriously aggravated nematode problems in various crops. The hidden nature of nematode causing damage out of sight of farmers, scientists and non specific disease symptoms in the above ground parts of the crops are perhaps main reasons why so little attention has been given to the hidden pest of crops.Management of plant parasitic nematodes with the use high doses of DD, EDB, DBCP etc. had been found promising, though did not receive much popularity. Moreover, all the effective chemicals have been withdrawn from world market due to their harmful effects on environment. Subsequently, efforts have been made to search for newer chemicals among the group of non-fumigants but failed to achieve the effective control as that of fumigants. In fact, nematodes are comparatively hardy animals require high doses of insecticide having nematicidal property. The growers are still dependent on the limited number of insecticides only because of non-availability of true and effective nematicides. With the increasing concern on environment, various alternative pest control methods like cultural, physical and biological control methods and botanicals are being tried to reduce the nematode damage of crops. However, judicious use of chemical nematicides could be applied for protection of many crops. Integration of various available practices is one of the current approaches for managing pest problems of crops. Cultural practices are known from time immemorial as a multiple pest control strategy. Biopesticides of botanical origin have also been proved as effective alternative of nematicides (Mishra, 2002).Therefore, current options for nematode management are cultural practices, physical methods, biointensive nematode suppression, botanicals and sensible use of chemical nematicides.Considering importance of nematodes in the integrated pest management system, following low input plant protection technologies viz. summer ploughing, soil solarization, organic manuring, crop rotation, adjusting dates of sowing, growing resistant varieties, irrigation management, optimum fertilization, hot water treatment, clean cultivation, green manuring, inter/mixed cropping, judicious use of pesticides, integration of two or more above mentioned methods (Gaur &Khan,1995) could be adopted for managing insect pest, diseases including nematodes in the crop production system.Nature of nematode problemsPlant parasitic nematodes can be detrimental to crop growth and development depending on population density and host susceptibility. Generally, they feed on the host tissues with the help of their protrusible stylet causing plants injury and due to feeding and secretion modify the host tissue into specialized nutritive cells as multinucleate giant cell, syncytium or nurse cells for ensuring permanent feeding. Some other nematodes induce gall formation on plant’s root, leaf and seed. While feeding on plant tissues, develop lesion as a result of cell death and subsequent discolourations. Infected plants are easily attacked by various soil pathogens like bacteria, fungi and develop a disease complex/ diseases syndrome. The etiology of those diseases caused by the organisms involved is difficult to determine. Several nematodes serve as vector of plant viruses. Thus nematode functions as plant pathogen, predisposing agent and vector of plant viruses. Plant parasitic nematodes are known to interfere the activity of beneficial nitrogen fixing Rhizobium bacteria in leguminous crops.In this review, only economically important plant parasitic nematode problems of crops in India and their management options are briefly discussed:1. Root knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.)Root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) are global menace to crop production (Sasser, 1980). It has a very wide distribution and causes serious damage to crops particularly in vegetables. The average yield losses in the world are believed to be about 5% and could be more in the developing countries of tropic and sub-tropic (Taylor & Sasser, 1978). Considering the universal significance of root-knot nematodes, an International Meloidogyne Project (IMP) was operated (1975-1984) with its head quarter at North Carolina State University, USA and its collaborating centres were in many developing countries of the tropics and subtropics. Worldwide more than 97 known species of root-knot nematode have been recorded and only 14 known species of Meloidogyne are recorded in India. Four species of root knot nematodes viz. Meloidogyne indica, M. lucknowica, M. triticooryzae and M. piperi have been described from India. Various insect-pests, diseases and weeds are inflicting damages to vegetable crops. Root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) are one of the potential constraints for cultivation of vegetables particularly in the developing countries of tropics and subtropics. Vegetable crops harbour large number of plant parasitic nematodes but root-knot nematode is most damaging one. It affects the crop directly and indirectly by interaction with various soil borne fungi, bacteria and viruses. The most predominant species of root-knot nematodes are Meloidogyne incognita, M. javanica, M. arenaria and M. hapla. All the species of root-knot nematodes produce a characteristic ‘root gall ’or‘knotted root symptom, which could be easily recognized by naked eye. There is hardly any vegetable crop which is not attacked by the root-knot nematodes. Therefore, it has widely been considered as a limiting factor for cultivation of vegetables. The lack of awareness among the farmers about the nematode problems and non-availability of suitable package of practices to extension workers for managing the root knot nematodes are the major hindrance for protecting the vegetable crops from root-knot nematodes. Chemical approach of nematode management is no doubt effective but high doses of nematicides required for managing nematodes are neither economical nor environmentally safe.The infection of root-knot nematode produces characteristic disease symptoms on the below ground root system popularly known as ‘root gall’ or ‘knotted roots’. Different sizes of galls are induced depending on their host and the species of the nematode involved. On cucurbits, the nematode induces large galls, whereas in chilli small size of galls is produced. Usually the infection of M. hapla produces small galls as compared to M. incognita and M. javanica. The size of galls also differs with the level of infection as in case of heavy infection large size or multiple galls or secondary galls develops. Besides galling, forking of taproot in carrot and tubercle on potato tubers are also noticed. Above ground symptoms are non-specific in nature. Infected plants exhibit symptoms of general mineral deficiency, yellowing, stunting, wilting during hotter part of the day, chlorosis, premature shedding of leaves and poor look of plants resulting in low yield. The nematodes are also involved in interaction with other soil borne fungi, bacteria, and viruses and cause serious damage to crops. The interaction of root-knot nematodes is known in many vegetables, fibre, pulses and plantation crops. However, the most common problem is the breakdown of disease resistance and wilting of healthy plants. The most common interaction of root knot nematode with Ralstonia (=Pseudomonas) solanacearum is causing “Pseudomonas wilt” in tomato, brinjal and potato.Nematode management optionsRoot-knot nematodes are polyphagous in nature, having high reproductive potential, and have acquired unique mechanism of survival strategy through laying their eggs in protective gelatinous matrix. Management of root-knot nematode is not easy task under intensive crop cultivation system. Therefore, the idea of keeping the nematode population below the economic damage level by adopting different available tactics is advised to the growers. The young tender seedlings of various crops are very much vulnerable to attack by nematode while the older plants achieve some degree of tolerance. Considering the farmer’s suitability, following hygienic cultivation practices of vegetable crops could be suggested for managing root-knot nematodes:Cultural practicesCultural practices are the most effective and economical means of managing insect-pests and disease including nematode problems. • Two to three summer ploughings (20 cm deep) during the months of May – June at the interval of 15 days expose nematodes, weeds, disease propagules and hibernating stages of insect-pests before the sun and cause their death.• Inter-cropping with antagonistic plants like marigold (Tagetes spp.) reduces soil population of many soil nematodes including root-knot nematodes. Incorporation of such crop in cropping system either as inter-crop or alternative crop should be considered whenever feasible.• Crop rotation with resistant varieties or non-host crops like mustard, sesame, maize, wheat etc. are useful to bring down the soil population of nematodes below the damage threshold level.• Application of organic manure, Farm Yard Manures (FYM) at 18 to 20 t/ha reduces nematode population through their action of released toxic substances, enhanced crop tolerance and encouraging soil microbial antagonistsResistant varietiesPlant resistance plays an important role in integrated management of root-knot nematodes diseases, however, availability of resistant varieties of vegetable crops are very few in number and many of them are not acceptable to the farmers for their suitability.Some of the resistance varieties exhibited resistance or tolerance reaction to root-knot nematodes are as given below:Tomato: SL-120, Hisar Lalit, PNR-7, Hisar N-1, Hisar N-2, Hisar N-3, NT-3, NT-8 NT-12, Ronita, Patriot, PAU-5, Mangla and Karnataka Hybrids.Chilli: Pusa Jawala, CAP-63, CA-2057, Sindhuri, NP-46 A, Mohini, SP-26, P-6-3, K-235Brinjal: Giant of Banaras, Black beauty, Gola, Gachha Baigan, Pbr-91-2, IC-95-13, HOE-101, Red Wonder.Cowpea: Barasati mutant, 82-IB, C-152, IHR-29-5, GAU-1Pea: B-58, C-50Potato : Kufri DewaOkra: Kanki local green, Harichickni,Vaishali BadherPumpkin: Dasna, JaipuriWater melon: ShahjanpuriRidge gourd: Panipati, Meerut special(modified after Anon. 1988)Chemical controlChemical control with the application of nematicides is the most effective means of nematode management. However, most of the effective nematicides have been withdrawn from the world market. At present, a few insecticides having nematicidal property are available to the farmers but because of their high doses required to manage nematode, it becomes cost- ineffective and leaves high pesticide residues to the harvested crops. Despite their inherent drawbacks, chemical nematicides could be applied judiciously so that the doses and cost are reduced drastically. The application of nematicides through bare-root dip treatment, seed treatment and nursery bed treatment has been proved to be effective to protect the young seedlings from nematode attack.Nursery bed treatmentIn most of the cases, the infection is carried through infested seedlings from nursery bed. The damage caused by root-knot nematode to the root system of tender seedlings is more harmful than to older plants. The application of nematicides to nursery bed helps to raise nematode free seedlings. Moreover, it reduces the dose of nematicides and cost substantially. The soil application of carbofuran (Furadan 3G) at 0.3 gm a.i./m2 is sufficient for producing nematode free seedlings of many transplanted vegetables crops. The treatment of nursery bed with sebuphos (Rugby 20 WP) or carbofuran (Furadan 3G) or benfurocarb (Oncol 50 WP) at 0.3 or 0.6 g a.i./m2 at the time of sowing reduced root-knot nematode and in seed yield of tomato by 25-62%.Bare-root dip treatmentThe seedlings of many transplanted vegetables crops can be dipped in systemic nematicides like oxamyl, prophos, and dimethoate at 500 to 1000 ppm for six hours to denematize the roots. These practices will further ensure to protect the root system of tender seedlings from early attack of nematodes. The seedlings of transplanted vegetables like brinjal, tomato, chilli and planting materials of pointed gourd treated with carbosulfan (Marshal 25 EC) at 500 ppm for six hours provided effective control against root-knot nematodes. Nursery bed treatment with carbofuran at 0.3g a.i./m2 coupled with seedlings deep with carbosulfan 25 EC at 500pm before transplanting effectively manage M. incognita and enhance crop yield in vegetables.Bare root dip treatment of tomato and brinjal seedlings with Zolone (Phosalone 35 EC) or monocrotophos (Monocil 36 SL) or carbosulfan (Marshal 25 ST or DS) at 0.05% reduces root-knot nematode and increase the yield.Seed treatmentThe practice of seed-soaking and seed-dressing are important prophylactic measures which give adequate initial protection to the young seedlings of tomato, brinjal, okra, chilli, etc. The most commonly used systemic nematicides viz. fenamiphos, isofenphos, carbosulfan etc. are used at 2-3% w/w.Seed dressing with carbosulfan (Marshal 25 ST) at 3% w/w is quite effective for managing root knot nematode in okra, bottle gourd, pointed gourd, bitter gourd and jute. Seed soaking with dimethoate, carbosulfan (Marshal 25 EC) can also be adopted for providing better crop with early protection against nematode.Field applicationField application of carbofuran 3G at 2Kg a.i./ha in tomato, brinjal and okra reduces nematode population and increases yields.Biological controlDespite its several limitations, biological control of root knot nematode is cost effective and eco-friendly method. As a component of integrated nematode management, biological suppression of root-knot nematode is well documented. Several bioagents have been exploited against this but so far only three bioagents viz. Paecilomyces lilacinus (Khan & Goswami, 2002), Psuedomonas fluorescens and Pasteuria penetrans have widely been recognized as effective and promising bioagents. Some formulations of P. lilacinus (Bionematon, Yorker) and Pasteuria penetrans (Pasutsuria 50 WP), Trichoderma viride and T. harzianum(Trichostar, Tricho guard, Bioderma, Ecoderma etc) are available in the market for checking root knot nematodes. Integrated Approach for root-knot nematode managementIndividual method of nematode control has either proved ineffective or uneconomical approach against root knot nematodes. Therefore integration of various suitable tactics may be an ecofriendly, economically viable and practically feasible approach for managing nematode problems in crops. The adoption of deep summer ploughing during summer period at fortnightly interval along with organic matter application followed by planting with nematode free seedlings is a feasible approach to reduce nematode population. Similarly, farmers with their available resources could follow integration of cultural, biological, chemical methods and resistant varieties in suitable combination for each crop cultivation system. Soil solarization/summer ploughing alone as well as in combination with carbofuran 3 G at 2 Kg a.i./ha has been found effective against nematodes infesting brinjal, chilli and tomato. Seedlings raised in solarized nursery beds treated with carbofuran at 0.3g a.i/m2 integrated with application of neem cake at 5q/ha gives better check against nematodes infesting vegetables and increases yield.2. Wheat seed gall nematode (Anguina tritici)This nematode is one of the most serious pests of wheat in the country. It is the oldest known plant parasitic nematode and the nematode alone causes ‘ear cockle’ disease in wheat and in association with the bacterium, Clavibactor tritici produces ‘yellow ear rot’ or ‘tundu’ disease. The host range of this nematode is very few in number and wheat is considered as the most suitable host. Although the control of this nematode is simple and easy as compared to other plant parasitic nematodes, it is still troublesome in many wheat growing parts of Rajasthan, UP, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh particularly in tribal belts where tons of wheat grains are wasted every year (Anon, 1995-2001). Wheat galls are the primary source of dissemination for nematode either as seed mixture of cockle. The juveniles of A. tritici remain viable in anhydrobiotic state inside the cockle for several years. After sowing the galls/cockles come in contact with soil moisture and become soft leading to release of large number of second stage juveniles. These juveniles infect the growing point of seedlings as ectoparasite and are carried to inflorescence due to the natural growth of seedling. The nematode enters the floral primordia and become endoparasite and eventually the floral primordial converted into seed galls.The initial visible symptom is enlargement of basal stems near the soil surface at the stage of 20 to 25 day-old seedlings. Generally the infested plant exhibits more number of tillers and grows fast as compared to healthy ones. Twisting, curling, crinkling of leaves and stunted growth are common symptoms in the early stage of plants growth the affected ears are typically swollen, broader with or a few awns on the glumes. The cockled ears contain initially green galls later in each spike-let 1 to 5 galls can be seen.Yellow ear rot or tundu diseaseThe early stage of plant exhibits similar disease symptoms as that of ear cockle disease. The yellow ear rot disease is primarily caused by a bacterium, Clavibactor tritici only in the presence of nematode, A. tritici. Under humid climatic conditions, the characteristic symptoms are appeared with a production of bright yellowish bacterial slime on the leaf surface which can be seen trickling down the ears. During dry weather, these slimes become hard, diseased spikes are generally distorted, stunted and narrower than healthy ones with the grains partially or completely converted by bacterial mass.Management optionsThe nematode is easy to manage as because the gall is the only source of ear-cockle and tundu disease. Both physical and mechanical methods are successful for eradicating this nematode from several developed countries of the world, however, in India this nematode is still becoming problems probably due to poor awareness and failure of national campaign against the dreadful disease of wheat.Physical methods• Hot water treatment of wheat seed-lots at 54 to 56 0 C for 10 to 20 minutes.• Water floatation of seed galls in 5-10% salt solution for 5 to 15 minutes. Seeds containing nematode gall will float in water surface and can be collected and discarded.Mechanical methodsFanning or winnowing is an effective method to remove the galls from seed lots. Sieving/ screening is a common practice and most successful method for eradication of seed gall nematode from many countries, though complete removal of gall is not possible with this methods because some large sized galls are retained on the sieves.3. Cereal cyst nematode (Heterodera avenae)Heterodera avenae is the causal organism of a serious disease popularly known as ‘molya’ disease of wheat and barley. This disease was first time recorded from Rajasthan in India and subsequently it is known to occur in major wheat growing states viz. Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Delhi, Himachal Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh of India (Kaushal et al., 2001).The nematode is mainly confined to the family gramminae.The nematode infested fields exhibit patchy growth with stunted and yellowish plant. Infested plants shows thin narrow leaves, reduced tillering, fewer leaves and small size of ear heads with reduced number of grains. The roots of nematode attacked plants appear bushy, bunchy due to emergence of root lets at the site of infection and slight swelling of root tips may be encountered. The above ground symptoms are often confused with the general deficiency symptoms. However, presence of cysts is the only confirmatory evidence for nematode infection.The second stage juveniles infect the growing tips of roots and upon feeding develop specialized syncytial cells for their growth and development. After three months, the juveniles achieve lemon-shaped sedentary female which is found to attack with roots. Eggs are laid inside the female body and after death of female, the body cuticle transform into brown cyst. During off-season, nematode survives in cysts.Management optionsCultural practices• Crop rotation with non-hosts like sarson, toria, raya, taramira, gram, berseem, carrot, coriander etc. with wheat.• Deep summer ploughing (2-3) at an interval of 10-15 days during hot summer months• Growing wheat cultivar C-306 as trap crop early in October• Growing Resistant varieties: Barley cultivar like Rajkiran, C-164, BH-72.Chemical controlField application of Carbofuran (FRADAN 3G) at 2kg a.i./ha have been found effective (Kaushal et al., 2001).Integrated managementIntegration of different tactics was found economical against cereal cyst nematode. Early sowing in the month of November along with field application of carbofuran at 2kga.i./ha is quite effective in increasing yield and reduction of cyst population in soil.4. Potato cyst nematode (Globodera rostochiensis, G. pallida)It is one of the serious nematode pests of potato in some southern states like Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Kerala. The nematode is popularly known as ‘golden nematode’ and has been recognized as one of the major crop protection problems of the world. The nematodes are responsible for average losses of 9% of global potato amounting to about 40 million tons (Krishna Prasad, 1995). In India, potato cyst nematode is known since 1961 when F.G. Jones detected this nematode from a field at Vijayanagaram state farm in Ootacmund of Nilgiri Hills in Tamil Nadu. Considering importance of potato cyst nematode in the country, the Government of Tamil Nadu imposed the Destructive Insect Pest Act 1919(DIP Act 1919) in 1971 to contain the nematode in the Nilgiri Hills. It is difficult to detect the disease symptoms at low infestation of nematode but the symptoms are prominent only after the build up of population in soil. The disease symptoms appears in small patches of poorly growing plants, temporary wilt of plants in day time, stunted plants, unhealthy yellowish foliage and poor root systems, reduction of number and size of tubers and production of potato yield gradually reduced over the years. The nematode is primarily confined to the family solanaceae and depends on the host root diffusates which induce the hatching of second stage juveniles from eggs. The second stage juveniles infect the root and modify the cells as giant cell for ensuring permanent nourishment to reach adult stage. The adult females are white spherical shape which is found attached with root and after death of female turn into brown cyst. All the eggs laid by the females are retained inside the body. This cyst containing eggs are protected and remain viable for several years in soil even in the absence of potato. The pathotypes RO1 and RO5 of G. rostochiensis and Pa2 and Pa3 of G. pallida of potato cyst nematodes are known to be prevalent in India.The nematode cyst containing eggs are generally spread through soil particles adhering to tubers, farm implements, gunny bags, farmers’ feet etc. However, irrigation water or rain water running down the hill slope carry the cyst from the infested field to uninfested fields.Management optionsCultural practices• Growing non-host solanaceous vegetable crops like cabbage, cauliflower, beet root, carrots, garlic, radish, turnip etc. One of the most useful rotation as potato-cabbage-carrot is commonly practised by the farmers of Nilgiri Hills.• Resistant Varieties : Kufri SwarnaChemical control:Use of carbofuran (FURDAN 3G) at 2kga.i./ha is effective to reduce nematode population as well as increasing potato yield.Key nematode pests of rice in Indiai) Rice root knot nematode, Meloidogyne graminicolaii) Rice root nematode, Hirschmanniella spp.iii) Rice stem nematode, Ditylenchus angustusiv) White tip nematode, Aphelenchoides besseyiv) Rice cyst nematode, Heterodera oryzicola5. Rice root knot nematode (Meloidogyne graminicola)Rice root knot nematode, Meloidogyne graminicola is a well established nematode pest of rainfed upland rice. It poses serious problems in boro and kahrif nursery particularly in sandy loam or recent alluvial soils of West Bengal. It is also becoming problem in transplanted rice grown in waterlogged conditions. The widespread occurrence of M. graminicola has been found in Assam, West Bengal, Gujarat, Orissa, Karnataka and Tripura.The above ground symptoms are nonspecific in nature as yellowing, stunting of foliage, delayed flowering by 10 to 15 days and reduced number of tillers. The presence of characteristic ‘hook shaped’ or ‘ring-like’ root gall on the root tip of growing rice seedlings is the confirmatory evidence for the association of this nematode. Galls produced by the nematode induce growth of lateral root lets and root hairs. The yield losses due to M. graminicola has been estimated to be between 16 to 32 % in upland rice and in severe cases go up to 64 %( Phukan, 1995). A complete failure of boro rice nursery in ‘simurali’ in the district of Nadia, West Bengal has been noticed (Anon, 2001)After harvesting of rice, the nematode may survive in egg stage in soil or continue to reproduce on various weeds. Female often remains concealed within root tissue and eggs are laid in cortical tissues and hatched juveniles reinfect the same roots. It completes life cycle within 19 days at 22 to 29 0C in upland rice.Management options:Cultural practicesi.Scheduling crop rotation with non-host crops as cauliflowers, sesame, groundnut, onion, maize, soybean, cowpeaii. Weeding: Rice fields supports a diverse kind of weeds like Echinochloa spp., Eleucine indica, Paspalam scrobiculatum, Cyperus spp. etc.iii. Resistant varieties: CR-143-2-2, CR-147-2-1, CR-1009, CT-428, Sudha, MurtiChemical approachesi. Seed soaking with carbosulfan (Marshal 25 EC) at500ppm or Carbosulfone at 0.1% for 12hrsii.Bare dipping in carbosulfan (Marshal 25 EC) at 500ppm for 20 minutesiii. Nursery bed treatment with carbofuran (Furadan 3G) at 1kga.i./ha and similar dose of nematicides at 7 and 50 days after transplanting6. Rice root nematode (Hirschmanniella spp.)Rice root nematode is a migratory endoparasite of roots and occurs predominantly in moist habitat. Rice root nematode, Hirschmanniella spp. are unique migratory endoparasites of rice and cause yield losses to the extent of 19% in rice in West Bengal (Ahmad et al., 1984). Hirschmanniella oryzae and H. mucronata are two economically species in rice and occurrence of H. gracilis is doubtful in India (per. Comm. Dr. M. R. Siddiqi). The juveniles and adult stages penetrate through entire length of roots and feed on cortical cells leading to the formation of channels or cavities in the roots. Its feeding sometimes extends to central vascular regions. The infected roots exhibit water-soaked brown lesion which are of mostly spindle shaped. The physiological function of infected plants is disrupted and plants growth reduced. The above ground symptoms are non-specific as stunted growth, leaf chlorosis, reduced tillering and delayed flowering.The population of Hirschmanniella species was found maximum during active growth phages of rice. The population build up of this nematode increases after transplanting up to 80 days of rice(Singh & Jain,1995) and declines when roots of rice starts degenerating.Rice root nematode survives better in poorly drained clay and heavy soils. It can survive even in high temperature of May-June (35-45 0 C) as well as low temperature of December-January (8-12 0 C) in the North Indian conditions (Mathur & Prasad, 1973). Their survival in soil is much longer than in roots in flooded soils. H. oryzae can survive more than 12 months in wet soils. A number of weeds found in rice fields serve as alternative host for this nematode. In West Bengal, the nematode can survive in the months of summer in the absence of any crops under laterite soil conditions (Khan & Mukhopadhyay, 2002). Under rice-wheat cropping system, the nematode maintains a very high population, though wheat is not the host for the nematode. Spread of this nematode occurs mainly through irrigation water, flood water, soil adhering to farm implements, field workers and root of rice seedlings.Management optionsDirect seeding of rice has been found to be more vulnerable to attack by this nematode compared to transplanted crop (Singh & Jain, 1995).Cultural practicesi. Early planting of rice in the month of June or middle of Julyii.Use of organic amendments such as mustard cake or neem cake at 220-240 kg/ haiii. Balanced NPK fertilizationiv. Crop rotation with wheat, linseed, potato, cauliflower, mustard and gram in rabi seasonv. Deep dry summer ploughingsvi.Weeding during standing rice and in absence of the cropvii. Growing resistant varieties/cultivars: TKM-9, CR-142-3-2, CR-52, N-136, W-136viii. Sesbania rostrata can be used as trap crop for H. oryzaeChemical approachesi. Nursery bed treatment with carbofuran 3G or phorate 10 G at1.0 kg a.i. /ha followed by I.0 kg/ ha at 7 and 50 days after transplantingii. Bare root dip treatment with chlorpyriphos/ carbosulfan 25 EC / monocrotophos 36 EC at 1000-2000ppm for 20 to 30 minutesiii. Seed soaking with carbosulfan 25 EC or isofenphos at 0.2% for 6 hours.7. Rice stem nematode (Ditylenchus angustus)Rice stem nematode is usually problematic in rice grown in deep water situations. The vernacular name ‘stem nematode’ is derived from the stem inhabiting nature of the nematode. It is an obligate parasite and serious pest of rice causing popular disease symptom referred to as ‘Ufra disease’. In Bangladesh and some areas of India, 100 % yield loss has been recorded due to severe attack of D. angustus. The nematode has been found prevalent in Malda, Murshidabad, Hooghly, 24-Parganas, Jalpaiguri, Coochbehar and West Dinajpur districts of West Bengal and Sibsagar, Jorhat, Morrigaon, Sonitpur, Borbeta and Dhubri in Assam (Phukan, 1995)The symptom produced by rice stem nematode is popularly known as Ufra or dakpora disease. The Ufra symptoms appear in patches and subsequently spread to the entire field. The nematode attack at vegetative stage results in yellowing or whitish pattern on the leaf sheath and margin becomes corrugated. In due course of time, the splash pattern turns brownish stains and stem and inter node become black. Twisting of leaf and leaf sheath are commonly found symptoms. Sometimes infested nodes give bushy appearance due to branching. The Ufra symptoms may be grouped as:Swollen or Thor Ufra: Panicle does not come out, it remains enclosed within the leaf sheath and infected portion tending to branch.Pucca or Ripe Ufra : Panicle emerges partially and panicle bears filled grains at tip only.The primary sources of infection D. angustus are rice stubbles, straw, wild rice and weeds found in rice fields. The nematode can overwinter through quiescent state (fourth stage juvenile) which remains viable up to 15 months. They live in coiled anhydrobiotic state in grains (Prasad & Varaprasad, 2001); dried plants parts left in the fields and reinfect the crop in the next season.Management options:Cultural approachesi. Destruction of rice stubbles, weeds and wild rice in the rice fieldsii. Crop rotation with jute, sesame, mustard with riceiii.Summer ploughing helps nematode to destroy by desiccation in the scorching heat of suniv. Growing early (Padmapani) or resistant (Rayada selection) varieties (Prasad et al., 2001)Chemical approachesi. Spraying with diazinon at 0.01%ii. Soil application of carbofuran 3G or phorate 10G at 1 kg a.i. /ha at transplanting8. White tip nematodes (Aphelenchoides besseyi)A. besseyi is a specialized parasite attacking aerial parts of its natural host, rice. Though rice is the most suitable host of this nematode, it can infect tuberose, onion, soybean, sugarcane, oat, millets, orchids etc. The most characteristic disease symptom is ‘white tip’ in rice leaf produced by this nematode due to which the common name of the nematode is ‘white tip nematode’. It has been recorded in serious form in rice from Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and West Bengal. In West Bengal, the nematode is becoming problem in the rice fields adjacent to tuberose fields in different tuberose growing areas of state (Khan, 2001). The nematode is prevalent through out the state of West Bengal (Das & Khan, 2007).It is easy to detect the presence of nematode within the rice seeds. In field, the initial appearance of symptoms as the leaf tip up to 5cm becomes pale yellow or whitish at tillering stage and subsequently leaves get dry. These symptoms are found for a short period in the plant. The tip of the flag leaf are often twisted which may obstruct the emergence of panicles. Infested panicles are shorter and lighter in weight as compared to healthy panicles.A. besseyi survives as pre-adults as well as in adult stages (quiescent state) beneath the hull of rice kernel and does not survive in soil after harvesting rice plants. Infected seeds or presence of other alternative hosts help nematode to survive up to next crop. They usually remain in coiled anhydrobiotic state in rice between lemma and palea up to 3 years. The infected rice seed is the only means for rapid spread of A. besseyi. It also spread through irrigation water or flood water. Female lays eggs on rice plants. All the developmental stages occur on rice plant. The life cycle of A. besseyi is completed within two weeks and, therefore, several generations are completed within a cropping season.Management optionsProphylactic measuresi.Healthy rice seed checks the spread of white tip disease of riceii. Rice stubbles to be burnt or destroyed after harvesting iii. Simple spreading the rice seed on the concrete floor on bright sunny days at least 4 hours for 6 consecutive days kills nematodes inside the grainiv.Seed-soaking in water(1:2 ratio) for overnight followed by adding two volume of boiling water for 10 minutes and then drying of seeds in shadev.Seed treatment with carbosulfan 25EC at 0.1% for 12 hours.9. Rice cyst nematode (Heterodera oryzicola)Heterodera oryzicola has been reported as a serious pest of rice in Kerala. It has also been known to occur in Burdwan and Bankura district of West Bengal (Rao, 1985). This nematode is one of the serious pests of rice and banana in Kerala (Kuriyan, 1995). Its occurrence has been recorded from Karnataka and Goa (Prasad, 2002).The browning of roots and chlorosis of leaves, retardation in growth, early flowering of plants by 10 to 15 days and partial filling of grains are the typical symptoms of infection of H. oryzicola. No gall developed on rice roots. The presence of brown cyst on rice root is the confirmatory evidence of this nematode infestation. One life cycle is completed in 30 days and 12 generations may occur in a year. Yield losses could be to the extent of 38% due to the attack of nematode (Rao, 1978). The nematode spread through infested seedlings, irrigation water or farm implements.Management optionsi. Soaking of seeds with phenamiphos at 0.02% for 6 hoursii. Soil application of carbofuran or phorate 1kg a.i. /ha at 7 and 50 DATiii. Growing resistant varieties like Lalnakanda, CR143-2-2iv.Regulatory measures on the movement of banana rhizomes as well as rice seedlings from infested areas have to be adopted.10. Burring nematode (Radopholus similis)This nematode is internationally quarantined pest and is capable of parasitizing many fruits, spices and plantation crops. It is known to cause a serious disease of black pepper popularly referred to as ‘pepper yellows’ in Indonesia and ‘slow wilt’ in India and ‘spreading decline’ in Florida. Many economically important crops like banana, citrus, betelvine, coconut, arecanut black pepper, ginger etc. are seriously affected by the nematode. The nematode is mainly problem in Southern states like Kerala, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh (Parvatha Reddy & Singh,1980). Recently, it has got spread to the state like Orissa, Manipur, Maharastra, Madhya Pradesh and Himachal Pradesh and Gujarat possibly through indiscriminate movement of planting materials of banana, ginger and turmeric rhizomes. Nematode infested banana plants exhibits ‘toppling disease’ at bearing stage, premature defoliation, poor plant vigour and finally reduction of bunch size and weight. In root, lesion develops on root and subsequent rotting and decaying of tender roots due to the involvement of other soil microorganisms. The coconut plants attacked by R. similis show general decline symptoms like yellowing, stunting and smalling of leaves and button shedding resulted in low yield. In black pepper, slow growth of vines, yellowing of leaves, rapid panicle declines followed by severe die-back and death of vines are common symptoms. The roots of coffee, arecanut, betelvine are seriously attacked and develop characteristic lesions and root decay and rotting. The nematode is a migratory endoparasite of root and feed on the succulent tissues of feeder roots. Due to their intracellular movement, the nematode destroys the cells and forms burrows or cavity inside the root. All the developmental stages are capable of feeding roots. Eggs are laid in root tissues and newly hatched juveniles start feeding and develop inside roots. Therefore, the entire life cycle may be completed within the roots. The total life cycle is completed in 20-25 days. In India, only the banana race of R. similis is prevalent.Management optionsThe nematode is difficult to manage due to its endoparasitic nature and wide host range.Preventive measures• Planting material/seedlings should be free from nematode• Any occurrence of discolouration on the rhizome should be removed and treated with Bordeaux mixture or nematicides• Hot water treatment of rhizomes at 50-55 0C for 20-25 minutes could be done to denematize the planting materials.• Raising of seedlings of coconut, arecanut, black pepper from nematode free nursery bed• Before planting, sun drying of banana rhizomes is also effective to reduce nematode populationCurative measures• Application of carbofuran 6 g a.i. or phorate 3 g a.i./plant 2-3 times in a year is effective to reduce the nematode in coconut and banana.• Application of neem cake at 400 g/plant once at planting and second dose after 4 months increase bunch weight and the yield of banana• Avoiding susceptible crops as intercrop• Intercropping with Crotalaria juncea reduces R. similis population• Bioagents like P. lilacinus, Glomus fasciculatum, Pasteuria penetrans are promising agents against R. similisResistant / Tolerant Varieties:Banana : Kadali, Pedalimoongil, Kunnan, Pey Kunnan, Pisang SeribyArecanut : Resistant: VTL-11x VTL-17( Sundarraju & Koshy, 1988)Tolerant: Indonesia-6 (VTL-11)Mahuva-B, Andaman-5 (VTL-29e)Coconut: Kenthali, Klappawangi, Hybrid Java Giant (JG X Kulasekheram Dwarf Yellow (KDY), KDY X JG, Java Tall X Malayan Yellow dwarf, San ramon X Gangabondan (Sosamma et al.1980)11. Citrus nematode (Tylenchulus semipenetrans):Citrus nematode is found in all the citrus growing areas of the country and is widely recognized as economically important pest of citrus. It is one of the causal factors for ‘slow decline’ in citrus’ which is characterized by general reduction of the tree growth, lack of vigour, yellowing of foliage and small size of fruits. The nematode is semi-endoparasite of citrus root. It causes symptoms that are often non-descriptive and difficult to diagnose. The nematode is often unnoticed in the seedlings in nursery which causes widespread distribution. The presence of nematode is best confirmed by microscopic observations of soil and root samples. The female nematodes and their gelatinous matrix containing eggs adhering soil particles and give the roots a dirty appearance which is not easily washed off. The most serious effects of the nematode on the growth and yield of citrus are usually encountered when new seedling are planted on old orchard. This condition is known to as ‘citrus replant problem’. The young tree grows slowly and fruiting is delayed. This condition of infested trees is referred to as ‘slow decline’ which implies general deterioration of citrus trees beginning with production of smaller and fewer fruits. The extent of decline in mature trees is related to their vigour, tolerance to nematode and to the degree of infection.T. semipenetrans feeds on surface layers of roots causing discolouration and necrosis. A young female penetrate deeper root tissues and establishes a feeding site around the head. The feeding site comprising of 16 cortical cells referred to as ‘nurse cell’. The posterior part of mature female body remains outside and eggs are laid in a gelatinous matrix outside the host tissue. The life cycle of this nematode is completed within 6-8 weeks under optimum temperature at 25 to 31 0C.Management options:Prophylactic measuresa. Nursery raising of seedling should be free from nematode infectionb. Previously infested citrus orchard should be either avoided or fumigated to kill any nematode population in soil.c. Preventing run off water from adjacent infested citrus orchardd. Use of clean equipment/implements for cultural practices because movement of any adhering soil particles from one place to another in orchard may disseminate the nematode.It is difficult to eliminate the nematode once it is established in orchard. Therefore, regular monitoring is essential for preventing the nematode to reach above the damage threshold level. Usually the nematode at low population level (500/g of feeding root) are not damaging to the crop but at high population (4000/g root) causes devastating damage to citrus plant (Nickle, 1991).Curative measuresa. Application of oilcakes of neem, mahua, groundnut etc. at 1kg/plant can reduce nematode populations.b. Combined use of neem cake at 1kg /plant along with carbofuran 3G (Furadan) 1.0 kg a.i./ha is also effective.c. Use of biocontrol agent like Paecilomyces lilacinus at 4 g /plant along with carbofuran 3G (Furadan) 1 kg a.i./ha gives good results (Parvatha Reddy et al., 1996).d. Use of resistant ‘trifoliate’ citrus stock may be an efficient method to check the nematode.Cultural practicesRemoval of old feeder roots before the start of growth flush followed by application of FYM helps to reduce nematode population in soil.12. Foliar nematode (Aphelenchoides besseyi) of tuberoseTuberose is commercially important for loose flower, cut flower and for extraction of essential oils. Its commercial cultivation in West Bengal was started in the second half of 19th century to meet aesthetic need of the English people harboured in Calcutta. At present the total area under tuberose in India is estimated to be about 20,000 ha, out of which 2,110ha is in West Bengal and it is mainly confined in Kolaghat-Panskura, Ranaghat and Haringhata areas. In terms of area and production of tuberose, West Bengal ranked first. Recently, foliar nematode, Aphelenchoides besseyi has been appeared as a serious problem in tuberose in West Bengal. This nematode was first time reported from Hawaii Islands on the leaves of tuberose (Holtzman, 1968). The occurrence of floral malady caused by A. besseyi in tuberose was recorded from Ranaghat areas of Nadia district of West Bengal (Chakraborti & Ghosh, 1993). In India, this nematode is widespread in Eastern and Southern states particularly in rice causing ‘white tip disease’ and estimated to cause yield loss 20 to 30%in rice, though floral disease caused by A. besseyi in tuberose was not encountered any other states except West Bengal. Recently, it has got spread to neighbouring state, Orissa either through movement of bulbs or other means. Recent survey results revealed that A. besseyi is a major limiting factor for cultivation of tuberose in Ranaghat and Haringhata regions of Nadia, Bangaon of 24-Parganas (South) and some pockets of Howrah and Midnapore districts of West Bengal. The high population of A. besseyi was also recorded from fields of Kolaghat-Panskura-II of Midnapore district. The ‘single’ cultivar of tuberose was found to be the most vulnerable to damage caused by A. besseyi as compared to ‘double’ cultivar. Khan et al. (1999, 2001) investigated for severe foliar disease infestation in tuberose and found A. besseyi is the primary causal agent for malformed flowers. The population of A. besseyi causing white tip disease in rice is the same population infecting tuberose and causing floral disease (Khan, 2001). A. besseyi is now recognized as the key nematode pest of tuberose and it was becoming a potential threat for cultivation of tuberose in West Bengal. The infected flower stalk initially appears rough, stalk become crinkled, stunted and finally distorted and in severe cases flower buds failed to bloom. Brown streaks appear on leaf bracts and petals and subsequently develop rusty brown spots. The severely infected flower stalk becomes rotten and brittle over drying, even get blind. The number of flowers per stalk is also reduced and small crinkled and distorted flowers which are not acceptable in the market. The nematode, A. besseyi remains in masses forming ‘nematode wool’ which could be easily recovered from dark brown spots (Khan & Pal, 2001). The ovary contains large number of nematodes. This nematode is more serious during rainy season generally from July to September and cent percent loss of second year crop particularly in ‘Calcutta single’ cultivar of tuberose was recorded. However, in ‘Calcutta double’ cultivar 30% to 40% flower stalk rendered unsaleable and from individual flower stalk up to 45,000 nematodes were recovered (Khan et al., 2002). In Calcutta single, the nematode could cause 38 to 59% yield loss (Pathak & Khan,2005)The dissemination of A. besseyi occurs through bulbs collected from infested fields. The nematode survives in coiled anhydrobiotic condition (quiescent pre-adult and adult stages) in the scaly leaves outside the bulbs. The nematode can also survive in the dried scaly leaves, stems and flowers more than 25 months; however, they can not survive in soil for long time (Khan, 2004).Nematode Management a. The planting material (bulbs) should be soaked in neem-seed-kernel-extract (home preparation from locally available neem) for overnight or dipping of bulbs in monocrotophos 36SL at 500ppm for 6 hours.b. After sprouting of the bulb, three to four sprayings with monocrotophos 36 SL at500ppm at 15 to 20 days interval should be given (Khan et al. 2005).c. In the second and third year crop, sprayings with monocrotophos 36 SL at 500ppm at 15 to 20 days interval starting from the month of May onward reduce the nematode infestation. d. Clean cultivation of tuberose and any infested parts of plants found in the field should be burnt immediately (Khan, 2006).13. Reniform nematode (Rotylenchulus reniformis):The adult female of reniform nematode (Rotylenchulus reniformis) is an obligate, sedentary semi-endoparasite of a wide range of food, fibre, oilseed, oilseed, fruits and plantation crops. The common name ‘reniform’ was derived from the kidney-shaped mature female. It has worldwide distribution and is receiving importance as national pest of crops. At present, there are 10 species of reniform nematode known worldwide but R. reniformis is the most widespread and has economic importance. In West Bengal, R. reniformis has been known to be associated with many vegetable crops, banana, tuberose, tea, pulses, fruits, betelvine etc.The symptoms of damage to crops are non-specific on the above ground or even in the below ground parts necessitating a close observation to confirm their presence and damage. It feeds on cortical tissue, phloem and pericycles and its infection may cause formation of necrosis on roots of certain crops. Symptoms appear as root discolouration, shedding of the leaves and formation of malformed fruits and seeds. In addition to causing direct damage to plants roots, the nematode in concert with other pathogens like Fusarium spp., Verticillium spp., Sclerotium rolfsii and Rhizoctonia solani develop diseases complexes. It has also been reported to parasitize the bacterial nodules.The nematode is capable of surviving in air dried soil for a long period of time (Gaur & Perry, 1991). The retention of moulted cuticles of previous stages is a unique adaptation for survival of nematode in soil. Individual young females, males and fourth stages juveniles could survive in a coiled anhydrobiotic state with encrusted cuticles in soil. Survival of this nematode inversely related to the rate of moisture loss in soil. Therefore, alternate drying and wetting of soil resulted in sharpe decline of population density of the nematode in soil.The first moult occurs within eggs and eggs are hatched in water without the influence of root exudates. Juveniles develop to pre-adult stage without any feeding host tissue and quickly completing three superimposed moulting. The young female is the only infective stage. After infection to the roots, young female orient themselves perpendicularly to the longitudinal axis of roots with the posterior part remain outside the root. After establishing the feeding site, it develops into kidney shaped female with posterior portion protrude outside the root. Egg laying starts within 7-10 days after invasion and eggs are laid into a gelatinous matrix secreted by six specialized cells around vagina. Each egg mass contains 30-200 eggs. Total life cycle is completed within 3 to 4 weeks depending upon temperature and host suitability. Management options:Cultural methods:Crop rotation with non hosts crops like mustard, maize, sugarcane, marigoldGrowing the susceptible crops in winter seasons in the multiple cropping systemsOrganic managementsApplication of FYM, oilcakes like neem, karanj, mustard etc. have been found promising.Summer ploughing:Two to three summer ploughings during hot monthsIrrigation management:Irrigation between ploughings results in alternate drying and wetting which may stimulate exsheathment of young female of R. reniformisCrop husbandry:Good crop cultivation practices like field preparation, fertilizer application and moisture management can improve crop tolerance to nematodes Resistant Varieties :Cowpea: Pusa phalguni, C-152, RC-48Papaya: Solo, Washington, Coorg Honey DewOnion: EvergreenChickpea: BG-425, BG-426, BG-434, BG-268, BG-273Blackgram: UG-201, UG-135Chilli: Pusa JawalaChemical Control:Soil application of carbofuran (Furadan 3G) at 2 kg a. i./ha gives good control but it may not often be economical in many low value crops. However, judicious use of nematicides may be adopted by restricting their use at nursery bed, seed treatments, bare dipping of vine cuttings and pit application particularly for transplanted crops.14. Lesion nematodes (Pratylenchus spp.)Pratylenchus spp. are migratory endoparasite of root. The vernacular name of ‘root lesion nematode’ is derived from the discoloured patches (lesion) develop on roots. It has a very wide host range including important crops like wheat, maize, cotton, potato, rice, banana, tea, vegetables, ornamentals and fruits. Some nematode species like Pratylenchus thornei in wheat, soybean, chickpea, sunflower and opium, P. zeae in maize, P. indicus in rice, P. loosi in tea, P. coffeae in coffee and banana, P. pratensis and P.vulnus in fruits are serious problems.The above ground symptoms caused by the nematode are non-specific in nature. The nematode usually infects in roots, rhizomes or tubers. Having penetrated into roots, they multiply in large numbers. All the stages of this nematode are infective. The attacked plant’s root exhibits dark red brown lesions caused by necrosis of the invaded cells. Root lesion is the most characteristic symptoms. The lesions initially appear as small elongate, water-soaked spots which soon turn brown to black. Loss of primary roots, pruning or decay of roots, reduced size of blossoms, shrinking of grains are also associated with the nematodes. Several secondary soil borne fungi, bacteria are also involved for rotting and decay of roots and thus normal functioning of infested roots are heavily impaired.Management options1. Summer ploughing of field reduces nematode populations2. Application of carbofuran (Furadan 3G ) at 1 kg a.i./ha at sowing reduces crop damage caused by soil nematodes3.Growing antagonistic crop like marigold (Tagetes patula) cv. Harmony in autumn after main crop or in between rows of main crop.4.Hot water treatment of bulbs, corms, tubers and fleshy roots can kill the dormant nematodes inside the root.15. Pigeon pea cyst nematode (Heterodera cajani)Heterodera cajani is the only species of cyst nematodes parasitizes a large number of leguminous crops. This nematode is prevalent and gaining importance in almost all pigeon pea growing states. Some populations of this nematode are known to attack sesame also. The species is distinctive for having large egg-sac (almost double of its cyst size). The nematode completes its life cycle in 16 days at 29 0C and in 45-80 day at 10 0C to 24 0C. It can also reproduce parthenogenetically, though it is bisexual species. During a cropping season, it can quickly multiply and build up a huge population. At seedling stage of plant pearl-like or lemon-shaped white female can be found attached with roots. Infected plants show yellowing, stunting, poor vigour and pod formation. Several crops like pigeonpea, cowpea, mungbean, soybean, blackgram and sesame are seriously damaged by the nematode.Management options:• Summer ploughing of fields during hot months• Crop rotation with non host crops for 2-3 years• Soil application of carbofuran (Furadan 3G) at 1-2 kg a. i / ha• Bio-agent like Pasteuria penetrans (Pasutsuria 50WP) may be used to suppress soil population.16. Ectoparasitic nematodesSeveral ectoparasitic nematodes are emerging as new problems of crops. In spite of being numerous group in soil and attained much adaptive biological features of survival and multiplication as compared to endoparasites, they are regularly ignored as nematode pest. Many genera like Tylenchorhynchus, Hoplolaimus, Helicotylenchus, Paratylenchus, Hemicriconemoides, Hemicycliophora, Criconemoides, Xiphinema, Longidorus, Trichodorus etc. are prevalent in the rhizosphere of agricultural, horticultural and forest crops and their pathogenic potential have been proved and their damaging nature are well documented. However, ectoparasitic nematodes are given least attention as because of their symptoms induced on plant are not easily convincing, often confused with other soil problems and soil pathogens. The role played by this group of nematode is much more dangerous particularly when they interact with other soil microorganisms and thereby make the plants vulnerable to weak pathogens.In modern agricultural system, intensive and extensive cultivation of same crops, changes in cultivation practices like high yielding varieties, poor organic nutrition in soil, indiscriminate use of agrochemicals etc. resulted shift in pest status. For instances, Tylenchorhynchus brevilineatus, an polyphagy ectoparasite of diverse crops has appeared as serious problem as ‘kalahasti malady’ disease of groundnut in Andhra Pradesh accounting for 20 to 60% yield losses (Reddy et al.,1984). This nematode is also reported to cause concern in tobacco in Gujarat. There are many instances like T. brassicae in cabbage and cauliflower, Hoplolaimus indicus in rice and jute, Helicotylenchus multicintus in banana, Paratylenchus and Criconemoides in apple and peach, Xiphinema basiri and Hemicriconemoides in citrus and grape and Paralongidorus in sal are emerging nematode problems (Khan & Ganguly, 1995) in the changing agricultural scenario in India. Management options• Ectoparasitic nematodes are very much vulnerable to summer ploughing which exposes and break the life cycle of many pathogens including nematodes.• Crop rotation with poor hostsFuture approaches and conclusionPlant parasitic nematodes constitute one of the major limiting factors for cultivation of crops. The changes in agricultural situations have tremendous effects on the emergence of new nematode problems in India. The recent outbreak of M. graminicola in the Mandya district of Karnataka, West Bengal, Orissa, Assam, floral malady caused by Aphelenchoides besseyi in tuberose in West Bengal and Orissa, kalahasty malady in groundnut in Andhra Pradesh, Meloidogyne indica in kagzi lime in Gujarat and Pratylenchus zeae in maize are few examples of serious concern. Despite the fact, plant parasitic nematodes are mostly neglected and considered as low priority factor for crop production and protection In India. The economic significance of nematodes in agriculture is very often under estimated and their damage potential is not recognized by the plant protection specialists, scientists and administrators. As an important component of integrated pest management, nematode pathogens cannot be ignored and they could be tackled with the intelligent planning of nematode suppressive crop sequences, summer ploughing, organic manuring, clean cultivation, adjusting sowing time, water and irrigation management and sensible use of nematicides. The increasing concern on the ill effects of chemical pesticides on environment has driven the recent research interests on the use of several alternative strategies like botanicals, biopesticides and cropping system research for management of insect-pests diseases including nematodes. Some of the successes have been obtained for managing plant parasitic nematodes with neem based formulations, fungal formulation of P. lilacinus, bacterial formulations of Pasteuria penetrans and Pseudomonas fluorescens. However, wide application of bioagents in field scale is still limited probably due to their inconsistent efficacy in different agro-ecological situations. Integration of two or more methods can be explored on the basis of their compatibility, economic viability and availability to the farmers. Developing holistic approaches for managing field problems including nematodes inducing disease complexes in concert with other pathogens like fungi, bacteria and viruses will be the major future areas of research thrust.Shortfalls of Nematology Extension:1. Inadequate knowledge about nematode to the extension specialists2. Ignorance of farmers, scientists and administrators about the nematode pathogen3. Reluctance to give due importance of nematode problems in crops4. Non acceptance of nematode pathogens as an important component of IPM5. Lack of nematode specialists and their poor representation in different Government sponsored Training programmes organized by Extension Department/ Government Departments.6. Non-availability of effective nematicides and a few or no pesticides industries are interested either to develop new molecules or judging their existing product having nematicidal properties.7. Lack of coordination among the plant protection disciplines to resolve the field problems by developing a comprehensive package of practices.Suggestions:1. To create awareness among farmers and convince the authorities concerned about the potentialities of tiny worm to harm the crops.2. Organizing group meetings of plant protection and production specialists and release a low cost publication for the farmers at least before Rabi and kharif season every year3. Providing training lectures including practical problems by the Nematology specialist to the extension workers either separately or through routine training programmes organized by the Department,

Selected references

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Introduction
“Power tends to corrupt, and absolute power corrupts absolutely.”
It is not easy to define corruption. But in a narrow sense, corruption is mostly concerned with ‘bribery’ and it takes several forms. Corruption is a global phenomenon and it is omnipresent. Corruption has progressively increased and is now rampant in our society.
National scenario
Corruption in India is a consequence of the nexus between Bureaucracy, politics and criminals. India is now no longer considered a soft state. It has now become a consideration state where everything can be had for a consideration. Today, the number of ministers with an honest image can be counted on fingers. At one time, bribe was paid for getting wrong things done but now bribe is paid for getting right things done at right time.
Effects of corruption
Indian administration is tainted with scandals. India is among 55 of the 106 countries where corruption is rampant, according to the Corruption Perception Index 2004 Report released by Transparency International India. Corruption in India leads to promotion not prison. It is very difficult to catch ‘big sharks’. Corruption in India has wings not wheels. As nation grows, the corrupt also grow to invent new methods of cheating the government and public.
Causes of corruption
The causes of corruption are many and complex. Following are some of the causes of corruption.
· Emergence of political elite who believe in interest-oriented rather than nation-oriented programmes and policies.
· Artificial scarcity created by the people with malevolent intentions wrecks the fabric of the economy.
· Corruption is caused as well as increased because of the change in the value system and ethical qualities of men who administer. The old ideals of morality, service and honesty are regarded as an achronistic.
· Tolerance of people towards corruption, complete lack of intense public outcry against corruption and the absence of strong public forum to oppose corruption allow corruption to reign over people.
· Vast size of population coupled with widespread illiteracy and the poor economic infrastructure lead to endemic corruption in public life.
· In a highly inflationary economy, low salaries of government officials compel them to resort to the road of corruption. Graduates from IIMs with no experience draw a far handsome salary than what government secretaries draw.
· Complex laws and procedures alienate common people to ask for any help from government.
· Election time is a time when corruption is at its peak level. Big industrialist fund politicians to meet high cost of election and ultimately to seek personal favour. Bribery to politicians buys influence, and bribery by politicians buys votes. In order to get elected, politicians bribe poor illiterate people, who are slogging for two times’ meal.
Measures to combat corruption
Is it possible to contain corruption in our society? Corruption is a cancer, which every Indian must strive to cure. Many new leaders when come into power declare their determination to eradicate corruption but soon they themselves become corrupt and start amassing huge wealth.
There are many myths about corruption, which have to be exploded if we really want to combat it. Some of these myths are: Corruption is a way of life and nothing can be done about it. Only people from underdeveloped or developing countries are prone to corruption. We will have to guard against all these crude fallacies while planning measures to fight corruption.
· Foolproof laws should be made so that there is no room for discretion for politicians and bureaucrats. The role of the politician should be minimized. Application of the evolved policies should be left in the hands of independent commission or authority in each area of public interest. Decision of the commission or authority should be challengeable only in the courts.
· Cooperation of the people has to be obtained for successfully containing corruption. People should have a right to recall the elected representatives if they see them becoming indifferent to the electorate.
· Funding of elections is at the core of political corruption. Electoral reforms are crucial in this regard. Several reforms like: State funding of election expenses for candidates; strict enforcement of statutory requirements like holding in-party elections, making political parties get their accounts audited regularly and filing income-tax returns; denying persons with criminal records a chance to contest elections, should be brought in.
· Responsiveness, accountability and transparency are a must for a clean system. Bureaucracy, the backbone of good governance, should be made more citizen friendly, accountable, ethical and transparent.
· More and more courts should be opened for speedy & inexpensive justice so that cases don’t linger in courts for years and justice is delivered on time.
· Local bodies, Independent of the government, like Lokpals, Lokadalats, CVCs and Vigilance Commissions should be formed to provide speedy justice with low expenses.
· A new Fundamental Right viz. Right to Information should be introduced, which will empower the citizens to ask for the information they want. Barring some confidential information, which concerns national and international security, other information should be made available to general public as and when required. Stringent actions against corrupt officials will certainly have a deterrent impact.
Conclusion
Corruption is an intractable problem. It is like diabetes, can only be controlled, but not totally eliminated. It may not be possible to root out corruption completely at all levels but it is possible to contain it within tolerable limits. Honest and dedicated persons in public life, control over electoral expenses could be the most important prescriptions to combat corruption. Corruption has a corrosive impact on our economy. It worsens our image in international market and leads to loss of overseas opportunities. Corruption is a global problem that all countries of the world have to confront, solutions, however, can only be home grown..
Until we will not take step forward to remove corruption from root, the word developing country
will always be attached with our country INDIA . So we the common man are solution for removing corruption from our INDIA and hence we will be also helpful in making our country developed.
I used the sentence “we the common man are the solution” because we are the only reason why corruption is so popular in INDIA. We are the person who are motivating corruption to be successful. We support corruption that is why it exit . Since we are the only person who elect ministers that are supporting corruption in INDIA .
We know that a particular candidate is not fit to be a minister but then also we vote for him in election , and that particular minister does not work hard for leading INDIA at first position , he do not perform his duty well . The main goal of these type of minister is to vacant INDIAN treasury so that there own treasury can be filled . The money which comes from government of INDIA for development of society is not used by the ministers for the purpose for which it came for instead of all this it used up by the ministers in filling their own treasury .
So from all the above stated reason we can conclude that are accept that we the common people who are supporting corruption to exit and hence we are only reason why our country INDIA is not an developed country yet. If this will be the situation for the coming years also then the time taken by INDIA to be a developed country will be increased by some years more. So I here thereby end with a promise from you people that you will be working against corruption to remove it from root . Common citizen of INDIA let us start working from now onwards with common goal of removing corruption from INDIA . Think the day when we will achieve our goal and whole world will say “INDIA IS AN DEVELOPED COUNTRY”
how much glad we will be feeling . Then only sacrifices of our freedom fighters will achieve their goal .
We Have Tolerated Corruption For So Long
The Time Has Now Come To Root It Out From Its Roots .

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